research
Theory & Research Overview
Dual coding theory says that we code information both in verbal and nonverbal formats. For example, when we learn about puppies, we learn the word 'puppy' but we also have in our memory images of puppies, feelings associated with puppies, sounds of puppies playing, and other physical, nonverbal information. By using graphic organizers, we are attending to both the verbal and nonverbal so information is learned more quickly and retrieved more readily.
Schema theory explains that within our memory exists schemas, or networks of information. The use of a graphic organizer can help students link the existing knowledge organized in schemas to the new knowledge
Cognitive load theory states that working memory has a maximum capacity of information it can process. If that load is exceeded, learning does not take place. Graphic organizers, used appropriately, can help reduce the cognitive load and, consequently, enable more resources (working memory) to be devoted to learning new material.
Multiple intelligence theory says that everyone exhibits intelligence in different ways (8 according to Gardner and maybe more) because of how our brains process and make sense of information. Graphic organizers can support all of the multiple intelligences, but is particularly helpful for those with verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial intelligences.
Sources of Research by Subject
Graphic Organizers
Alvermann, D. E., & Boothby, P. R. (1986). Children's transfer of graphic organizer instruction. Reading Psychology, 7:2, 87-100.
Anderson-Inman, L., Knox-Quinn, C., & Horney, M. A. (1996). Computer-based study strategies for students with learning disabilities: Individual differences associated with adoption level. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29:5, 461-484.
Boyle, J. R., & Weishaar, M. (1997). The effects of expert-generated versus student- generated cognitive organizers on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 12:4, 228-235.
Bulgren, J., Schumaker, J. B., & Deschler, D. D. (1988). Effectiveness of a concept teaching routine in enhancing the performance of LD students in secondary-level mainstream classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11:1, 3-17.
Carnes, E. R., Lindbeck, J. S., & Griffin, C. F. (1987). Effects of group size and advance organizers on learning parameters when using microcomputer tutorials in kinematics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24:9, 781-789.
Clements-Davis, G. L., & Ley, T. C. (1991). Thematic preorganizers and the reading comprehension of tenth-grade world literature students. Reading Research & Instruction, 3:1, 43-53.
Darch, C. B., Carnine, D. W., & Kammeenui, E. J. (1986). The role of graphic organizers and social structure in content area instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18:4, 275-295.
Gallego, M. A., Duran, G. Z., & Scanlon, D. J. (1989). Interactive teaching and learning: Facilitating learning disabled students' transition from novice to expert. Literacy Theory and Research, 311-319.
Gardill, M. C., & Jitendra, A. K. (1999). Advanced story map instruction: Effects on the reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 33:1, 2-17.
Hall, T., & Strangman, N. (2002). Graphic organizers. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from http://www.cast.org/publications/ncac/ncac_go.html
Herl, H. E., O'Neil, H. F., Jr., Chung, G. K. W. K., & Schacter, J. (1999). Reliability and validity of a computer-based knowledge mapping system to measure content understanding. Computers in Human Behavior, 15:3-4, 315-333.
Hudson , P., Lignugaris-Kraft, B., & Miller, T. Using content enhancements to improve the performance of adolescents with learning disabilities in content classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 8:2, 106-126.
Idol, L., & Croll, V. J. (1987). Story-mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10:3, 214-229.
Merkley, D.M., & Jefferies, D. (2001). Guidelines for implementing a graphic organizer. The Reading Teacher, 54:4, 350-357.
Moore , D. W., & Readence, J. E. (1984). A quantitative and qualitative review of graphic organizer research. Journal of Educational Research, 78:1, 11-17.
Newby, R. F., Caldwell, J., & Recht, D. R. (1989). Improving the reading comprehension of children with dysphonetic and dyseidetic dyslexia using story grammar. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22:6, 373-380.
Novak, J. D. (1990). Concept maps and Vee diagrams: Two metacognitive tools to facilitate meaningful learning. Instructional Science, 19:1, 29-52.
Scanlon, D., Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1996). Can a strategy be taught and learned in secondary inclusive classrooms? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 11:1, 41-57.
Sinatra, R. C., Stahl-Gemake, J., & Berg, D. N. (1984). Improving reading comprehension of disabled readers through semantic mapping. Reading Teacher, 38:1, 22-29.
Tindal, G., Nolet, V., & Blake, G. (1992). Focus on teaching and learning in content classes. Resource Consultant Training Program, University of Oregon Eugene; Training Module No. 3, 34-38.
Willerman, M., & Mac Harg, R. A. (1991). The concept map as an advance organizer. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28:8, 705-712.
Centre for Independent Learning, College of DuPage (1998). Graphic Organisers. Retrieved June 9, 2004, from http://www.cod.edu/course/graorg/organizers.htm.
Hall, T., & Strangman, N. (2004). Graphic Organisers. National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved June 8, 2004, from http://www.cast.org/ncac.
Gerlic, I., & Jausovec, N. (1999). Multimedia: Differences in cognitive processes observed with EEG. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47:3, 5014.
Marzano, R., Pickering, D., Pollock, J., (2001). Research based strategies for increasing student achievement. Classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Novak, J.D., & Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Reading Quest.org. (1999). Graphic Organizers. Retrieved June 8, 2004 from http://www.readingquest.org/strat/graphic.html.
Resse, D. D. (2004). Assessment and Concept Map Structure: The Interaction Between Subscores and Well-Formed Mental Models.
Visual Learning and Learning Styles
Dillon, A., & Gabbard, R. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control, and style. Review of Educational Resea rch, 68:3, 322-349.
Kataria, S., Hall, C. W., Wong, M. M., & Keys, G. F. (1992). Learning styles of LD and NLD ADHD children. J Clin Psychology, 48:3, 371-378.
Draeger, S., Prior, M., & Sanson, A. (1986). Visual and auditory attention performance in hyperactive children: Competence or compliance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 411-424.
Langa, M. A., & Yost, J. L. (2007). Curriculum mapping for differentiated instruction, K-8. Thousand Oaks , CA : Corwin Press.
Hay, D. B., & Kinchin, I. M. (2006). Using concept maps to reveal conceptual typologies. Education & Training, 48(2-3), 127-142.
Hoffman, P. R., & Norris, J. A. (2006). Visual strategies to facilitate written language development. In R. McCauley & M. E. Fey, Treatment of language disorders in children: Conventional and controversial approaches. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. E. (2005). Applications, reliability, and validity of the index of learning styles. Intl. Journal of Engineering Education, 21:1, 103-112.
Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (2005). Understanding student differences. Journal of Engineering Education, 94:1, 57-72.
Acharya, C. (2002), Students' learning styles and their implications for teachers, CDTL Brief, 5:6. Retrieved April 7, 2007, from http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/brief/v5n6/default.htm.
Allinson, C. W., & Hayes, J. (1996). The cognitive style index: a measure of intuition-analysis for organisational research. Journal of Management Studies, 33, 119-135.
Atherton, J. S. (2005). Learning and teaching: Experiential learning. Retrieved on April 10, 2007, from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/experience.htm.
Becker, D'A., & Dwyer, M. (1998). Th e impact of student verbal/visual learning style preference on implementing groupware in the classroom. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks[online serial], 2:2, 61-69. Retrieved September 20, 2000, from http://www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/vol2_issue2/becker.htm.
Bull, S. (2004). Supporting learning with open learner models. 4th Hellenic Conference with International Participation: Information and Communication Technologies in Education, Athens (Keynote Address ).
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. A systematic and critical review. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.
Cornelius, S. (2002). Learning online. In C. A. Higgison (ed.), Online Tutoring E-Book, chapter 1. Retrieved April 1, 2007 from http://www.otis.scotcit.ac.uk/onlinebook/otisT103.htm.
Curry, L. (1990). A critique of the research on learning styles. Educational Leadership, 48, 50-56.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26:3, 325-346.
Duff, A. (2000). Learning styles measurement: the revised approaches to studying inventory (RASI). Bristol Business School Teaching and Research Review. Issue 3. Retrieved April 1, 2007, from http://www.uwe.ac.uk/bbs/trr/Issue3/Is3-1_5.htm.
Entwistle, N. (1981). Styles of learning and teaching. New York: John Wiley.
Entwistle, N., Thompson, S., & Tait, H. (1992). Guidelines for promoting effective learning in higher education. University of Edinburgh, Scotland: Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction.
Entwistle, N. (2001). Styles of learning and approaches to studying in higher education. Kybernetes, 30:5/6, 593-602.
Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. (2005). Applications, reliability and validity of the index of learning styles. International Journal of Engineering Education. 21:1, 103-112.
Felder, R. M. (1996). Matters of styles. ASEE Prism, 6:4, 18-23.
Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning styles and teaching styles in engineering education. Engr. Education, 78:7, 674-681.
Felder, R. M. (1993). Reaching the second tier: Learning and teaching styles in college science education. J. Coll. Sci. Teaching, 23:5, 286-290.
Felder, R. M., & Solomon, B. A. (2006). Learning styles and strategies. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from http://www2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/styles.htm .
Felder, R. M., & Spurlin, J. E. (2005). A validation study of the index of learning styles: Applications, reliability, and validity of the index of learning styles. Intl. Journal of Engineering Education, 21:1, 103-112.
Felder, R. M., & Brent, R. (2005). Understanding student differences. J. Engr. Education, 94:1, 57-72.
Ford, N. (2000). Cognitive styles and virtual environments. Journal of the American Society of Information Science, 51:6, 543-55.
Kay, J. (1997). Learner know thyself: Student models to give learner control and responsibility. In Z. Halim, T. Ottomann, & Z. Razak (eds.), Proceedings of International Conference on Computers in Education, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 17-24.
Keefe, J. W. (1979). Learning style: An overview. In NASSP’s Student Learning Styles: Diagnosing and Prescribing Programs. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1-17.
Keefe, J. W. (1989). Learning style profile handbook: Accommodating perceptual, study and instructional preferences, Vol. II. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Kim, K-S., & Moore, J. L. (2005). Web-based learning: Factors affecting students' satisfaction and learning experience, First Monday, 10:11. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_11/kim/index.html.
Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). The Kolb Learning Style Inventory 3.1: Technical Specifications. Boston , MA : Hay Resources Direct.
Harasym, P. H., Leong, E. J., Juschka, B. B., Lucier, G. E., & Lorscheider, F. L. (1996). Relationship between myers-briggs type indicator and gregorc style delineator. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82:3 Pt 2, 1203-1210.
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1982). Manual of Learning Styles. London: P. Honey.
Irvine , J. J., & York, D. E. (1995). Learning styles and culturally diverse students: A literature review. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, (pp. 484-497). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
Jonassen, D. H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of individual difference, learning, and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Kaufmann, G., Martinsen, O. (1991). The explorer and the assimilator: A theory and measure of cognitive styles in problem solving. International Creativity Network Newsletter, 1:4, 8-9.
Kirton, M. J. (1994). Adaptors and innovators. London: Routledge.
Myers, I. (1978). Myers-Briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Mayes, Terry, JISC e-Learning Models Desk Study, Stage 2: Learner-centred pedagogy: Individual differences between learners. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/Stage%202%20Learning%20Styles%20(Version%201).pdf.
McLoughlin, C. (1999). The implications of the research literature on learning styles for the design of instructional material. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 15:3, 222-241.
Merrill, M. D. (2002). Instructional strategies and learning styles: which takes precedence? In R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and Issues in Instructional Technology, (pp. 99-106). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall.
Mockford, C., & Denton, H. (1998). Assessment modes, learning styles, and design and technology project work in higher education. The Journal of Technology Studies, XXIV:1, 12-17.
Papanikolaou, K. A., Mabbott, A., Bull, S., & Grigoriadou, M. (2006). Designing learner-controlled educational interactions based on learning/cognitive style and learner behaviour. Interacting with Computers 18, 356–384.
Pask, G. (1988). Learning strategies, teaching strategies and conceptual or learning style. In R. Schmeck (Ed.), Perspectives on individual differences, learning strategies and learning styles, (pp. 83-100). New York & London: Plenum Press.
Reid, J. M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 87-111.
Riding, R. J., & Pearson, F. (1994). The relationship between cognitive style and intelligence. Educational Psychology, 14:4, 413–425.
Robotham, D. (1999). The application of learning style theory in higher education teaching. Geography Discipline Network Discussion Papers. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from http://www.chelt.ac.uk/gdn/discuss/kolb2.htm.
Sadler-Smith, E. (2001), The relationship between learning style and cognitive style. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 609-616.
Sadler-Smith, E., & Riding, R. (1999). Cognitive style and instructional preferences. Instructional Science, 27: 355–371.
Sadler-Smith, E. (1996). Learning styles: A holistic approach. Journal of European Industrial Training,20:7, 29–36.
Santally, M. I., & Senteni, A. (2005), A learning object approach to personalized web-based instruction, European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2005/Santally.htm.
Santally, M. (2003). Students learning styles & computer conferencing as a pedagogical tool to enhance and support the teaching and learning process. World Conference on E-Learning in Corp., Govt., Health, & Higher Ed. 2003:1, 1165-1168. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
Schmeck, R. (1983). Learning styles of college students. In R. Dillon & R. Schmeck (Eds.), Individual differences in cognition, (pps. 233-279). New York: Academic Press.
Schmeck, R. (1988). Learning strategies and learning styles. New York: Plenum Press.
Solomon, C. (1986). Computer environments for children: A reflection on theories of learning and education. Cambridge (MA), Londres: The MIT Press.
Stahl, S. A. (1999). Different strokes for different folks? A critique of learning styles. American Educator, 23:3, 27-31.
Stahl, S. A. (2002). Different strokes for different folks? In L. Abbeduto (Ed.), Taking sides: Clashing on controversial issues in educational psychology, (pp. 98-107). Guilford, CT: McGraw-Hill.
Witkin, H. A. (1954). Personality through perception: An experimental and clinical study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. (1981). Cognitive styles: Essence and origins. New York: International University Press.
Vermunt, J. D. H. M. (1992). Learning styles and guidance of learning processes in higher education. Amsterdam: Lisse Swets and Zeitlinger.
ADHD
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65-94.
Dunaway, C. (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an authentic story in the schools and its implications. Seminars in Speech and Language, 25(3), 271-275.
Kerns, K. A., Eso, K., & Thomson, J. (2000). Investigation of a direct intervention for improving attention in young children with ADHD. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16(2), 273–295.
O’Hanlon , N. (2005). Adapting online instruction for a learning disabled audience. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from https://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlevents/ohanlon05.pdf.
Shaw, G., & Brown, G. (1999). Arousal, time estimation, and time use in attention-disordered children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16:2, 227-242.
Cognitive Theories
Brűnken, R., Plass, J., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 53-61.
Guyer, B., & Friedman, M. (1975). Hemispheric processing and cognitive styles in learning-disabled and normal children. Child Development, 46, 658-669.
Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 319-334.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
Weiler, M., Bernstein, J., Bellinger, D., & Waber, D. (2002). Information processing deficits in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, inattentive type, and children with reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 448-462.
Weiler, M., Harris, N., Marcus, D., Bellinger, D., Kosslyn, S., & Waber, D. (2000).
Speed of information processing in children referred for learning problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 538-551.
